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Modals

present
Past

can
could

will
would

shall
should

may
might



1. Could + Verb base

ô to offer suggestions or possibilities

Example:

Patrick : Oh, no! I left my shorts.

Spongebob : Don’t worry, Patrick. You could borrow my shorts.

Asmi : I’m having trouble with English.

Randah : Why don’t you ask Agnes? Perhaps she could help you.



ô to indicate that the ability existed in the past but doesn’t exist now.

Example:

Tasya : Ras, can you climb the durian tree?

Rasya : Well… I could climb durian tree when I was so young.

But I think I’m too heavy to climb it.



Mia : Grandpa, what could you do when you were younger?

Grandpa : When I was younger, I could swim across the big river

very well and faster.



ô to express polite requests

Example: Could I borrow your pencil (please)?

Could you lend me your jacket now?

Could you please close the door?

Could you pass the salt?



2. Would + Verb base

ô for an action that was repeated regularly in the past

Example:

When I was a child, I would visit my grandparents every weekend.

On Sundays, when I was a child, we would all get up early and go fishing.



ô insert rather into the pattern and use this expression to express preferences

Example:

Justin : What would you rather do in the weekend, go to the party or stay home?

Eminem : I would rather go to the party than stay home.


Angel : Which country would you rather visit?

Maria : I would rather visit Italia than Somalia.



ô to express polite requests

Example:

Andi : Would you mind cycling with me, Kala?

Kala : No, not at all. It would be nice.



Mikola : Would you please pass the helmet, Bella?

Bella : No problem


3. Should + Verb base

ô to give definite advice (advisability)

Example:

Bunda : Putri, you should study tonight.

You will have English test tomorrow, won’t you?

Putri : I will, Bunda.




Debby : You should paint your door, Bobby. It looks terrible.

Bobby : Yes, I know I should.



ô to express the subject’s obligation or duty

Example: You should practice for more than an hour. (to musical friend)

They shouldn’t allow parking here; the street is too narrow.

Application should be sent before March 25th.


4. Might + Verb base

ô to tell possibilities

Example:

David : Where is Deddy?

Copperfield : He might be in the studio with Kalina.



ô To express polite requests

Example:

Tian : Might I borrow your coat?

Ringgo : I’m afraid not. It has been brought by Donny for weeks and

I don’t know when he’ll return it.

I am at here. <== FALSE
My birthday in January <== FALSE
It happened on 05.37 <== FALSE
Do you want to know the true answers? Check it out... LOL


Preposition of Time : at, in, on

We use :

at for a PRECISE TIME
in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
on for DAYS and DATESat in on
PRECISE TIME MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS DAYS and DATES
at 3 o'clock in May on Sunday
at 10.30am in summer on Tuesdays
at noon in the summer on 6 March
at dinnertime in 1990 on 25 Dec. 2010
at bedtime in the 1990s on Christmas Day
at sunrise in the next century on Independence Day
at sunset in the Ice Age on my birthday
at the moment in the past/future on New Year's Eve


Look at these examples:
I have a meeting at 9am.
The shop closes at midnight.
Jane went home at lunchtime.
In England, it often snows in December.
Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
There should be a lot of progress in the next century.
Do you work on Mondays?
Her birthday is on 20 November.
Where will you be on New Year's Day?

Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:Expression Example
at night The stars shine at night.
at the weekend I don't usually work at the weekend.
at Christmas/Easter I stay with my family at Christmas.
at the same time We finished the test at the same time.
at present He's not home at present. Try later.


Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:in on
in the morning on Tuesday morning
in the mornings on Saturday mornings
in the afternoon(s) on Sunday afternoons
in the evening(s) on Monday evening


When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
I went to London last June. (not in last June)
He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)
We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)

Preposition of Place : at, in, on

In general, we use :
at for a POINT
in for an ENCLOSED SPACE
on for a SURFACEat in on
POINT ENCLOSED SPACE SURFACE
at the corner in the garden on the wall
at the bus stop in London on the ceiling
at the door in France on the door
at the top of the page in a box on the cover
at the end of the road in my pocket on the floor
at the entrance in my wallet on the carpet
at the crossroads in a building on the menu
at the front desk in a car on a page


Look at these examples:
Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop.
The shop is at the end of the street.
My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi and arrived in Bangkok two hours late.
When will you arrive at the office?
Do you work in an office?
I have a meeting in New York.
Do you live in Japan?
Jupiter is in the Solar System.
The author's name is on the cover of the book.
There are no prices on this menu.
You are standing on my foot.
There was a "no smoking" sign on the wall.
I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London.

Notice the use of the prepositions of place at, in and on in these standard expressions:at in on
at home in a car on a bus
at work in a taxi on a train
at school in a helicopter on a plane
at university in a boat on a ship
at college in a lift (elevator) on a bicycle, on a motorbike
at the top in the newspaper on a horse, on an elephant
at the bottom in the sky on the radio, on television
at the side in a row on the left, on the right
at reception in Oxford Street on the way

Invitation is a way to invite someone or more to go to a place or to do something.
There are two types of invitation.
They are Formal Invitation and Informal Invitation.
-Formal invitation is usually originate from Institutes, Companies and a kind of it. Normally formal invitation is written invitation.
-Informal invitation is personal invitation given to a friend, family, etc. Informal invitation can be written invitation and verbal invitation.

How to Write An Invitation??

Step 1
Before you write an invitation, decide on the tone, voice and level of formality, based on the event itself. This will dictate whether you hand-write the cards or have them printed, and whether you choose A preprinted or personalized invitation.

Step 2
Choose the type of invite you want, and order or buy a few more than you think you'll need. This will permit you to add some guests to your list at the last minute, if necessary. For small parties, you may want to hand-write the invitations on stationery or blank cards. For large gatherings, consider ordering printed invitations.

Step 3
Determine the wording of your invite based on the level of formality. For example, a formal invitation might say, 'Dr. and Mrs. Stanley request the pleasure of your company,' whereas a more casual note might say, 'Please join us.'

Step 4
Include the names of the host and/or hostess, as well as the place (with street address), time, date and purpose of the occasion, even if it's a simple get-together.

Step 5
Make sure to add RSVP information at the bottom of the invite if you need to know who will be attending; for example, 'RSVP' followed by your telephone number.
R.S.V.P. which means "please reply.“The person sending the invitation would like you to tell him or her whether you accept or decline the invitation. That is, will you be coming to the event or not?

Step 6
Include a respond-by date on a formal invitation so you can get an accurate head count in time to adjust the amount of food, number of place settings and room size. For a wedding, charity function or other formal event, consider including a response card and a stamped, self-addressed envelope inside the envelope containing your invite.

Step 7
Mail invitations three weeks before most events, four weeks before a formal affair and three months before a wedding, to allow for airline reservations. For events held during the December holidays, send invitations around Thanksgiving.


Example
- Extending (mengundang)
- Let’s go to the Keroncong Festival!
- Please try to come!
- I hope you’ll join us!
- If you are not busy, pleset come to my party!
- Shall we see the film?
- I would like to invite you come to my house!

Accepting (menerima)
- Great! Let’s do it!
- Thank you. I’d like to!
- That’s a good idea!
- That would be very nice!
- Thank you for invitation!

Declining (menolak)/refusing:
- I’m really sorry about that.
- Sorry. I can’t. I have to do something.
- I’d love to. But I can’t.
- Sorry. I really busy.
- (If you declining an invitation, please give a reason)

The expression of “ Would you like....”is normally used for offering something to someone.
Putri : Would you like a cup of tea, Mrs. Rani?
Mrs. Rani : Yes, please. Thank you. Hmmm...this tea tastes good....and smells fragrant too.......
Putri : Thank you. I’m glad you like it.

Ways to say it
* Would you like a cup of coffee, Mr. Green?
* Should I get you a bottle of water?
* Could I offer you a glass of milk, Mr. kiki?
* Would you care some salad?

Offering to friends:
* Want some?
* Have some?
* Chocolate?
* Grab some for yourself

Less formal expressions:
* Would you like to have a pancake?
* Why don't you have some lemonade?
* What can I get for you?
* What will you have?

Declining an offering
* No, thanks.
* No, really won't, thanks
* Not for me, thanks.

Accepting an offering:
* Thank you.
* Yes, please
* I'd like it very much
* That would be very nice

Formal expressions:
- I wonder if you remember.....
- You remember...., don’t you?
- You haven’t forgotten...., have you?
- Don’t you remember.....?
- Do you happen to remember it now?

Ways to respond:
- Let me think, yes, I remember.
- I remember especially the scenery.
- I’ll never forget that
- I’ll always remember.
- I can remember it clearly.

Informal expressions:
- Remember the old house we used to live in?
- Remember that?
- I’m sorry I don’t remember

Ways to respond:
- Hold on. Yes, got it!
- I know.....
- It’s coming back to me now.

Respond if you forget:
- Sorry, I’ve completely forgotten.
- I’m affraid I forget.
- I really can’t remember.
- I’m afraid I have no memory of him
- Errr, let me think. No, it’s gone.
- Sorry, it slipped off my mind.

Example..
It was Sunday morning, Cinta got dressed and had breakfast quickly. She was ready to leave for school. Her mother was a little puzzled.
Mother : Hey...hey.... are you going to school?
Cinta : Yes, Mom. I overslept. I’m in a hurry
Mother : You remember Sunday, don’t you?
Cinta : Oh, my goodnes. I thought it’s a school day !

When the subject is an infinitive phrase, the sentence often begins with it. Instead of saying ‘To find fault with others is easy’, we say, ‘It is easy to find fault with others’. More examples are given below.

• It is easy to learn English. (More natural than ‘To learn English is easy’.)
• It was not easy to understand his motive.
• It may be advisable to consult a specialist.
• It could be dangerous to drive so fast.
• It was pleasant to sit on the beach.

• To err is human.
• To withdraw now will be sheer folly.

• Will it be any good my talking to him about it?
• It is no use arguing with him.
• It won’t be much good complaining to the officer about it.

• Will it be any good for me to talk to him about it?

• It does not matter whether he comes or not. (= Whether he comes or not does not matter.)
• It is doubtful whether he can pay the dues. (= Whether he can pay the dues is doubtful.)
• It cannot be denied that the doctors did their best to save his life. (= That the doctors did their best to save his life cannot be denied.)

Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be going to." Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. These different meanings might seem too abstract at first, but with time and practice, the differences will become clear. Both "will" and "be going to" refer to a specific time in the future.

FORM Will

FORM Be Going To

USE 1 "Will" to Express a Voluntary Action

USE 2 "Will" to Express a Promise

USE 3 "Be going to" to Express a Plan

USE 4 "Will" or "Be Going to" to Express a Prediction

IMPORTANT

No Future in Time Clauses

ADVERB PLACEMENT

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Narrative text is a kind of text that has function to entertain, create, stimulate emotions, motivate, guide, and teach the reader which contains about story (fiction/non fiction/tales/folktales/ fables/myths/epic) and in its plot consists of climax of the story (complication) then followed by the resolution.

The generic structure of narrative text :

v Orientation

Function : It sets the scene and introduces the participants(it answers the question = who, when, what, where.)

v Evaluation

Function : A stepping back to evaluate the plight (the information about the narrator’s point of view) ; it is optional.

v Complication

Function : A crisis or a problem arises. It usually involves the main characters.

v Resolution

Function : A solution to the problem (for better or for worse). Main characters find ways to solve the problem.

The kinds of narrative text :

v Myth

A tradisional story which may describe the origins of the world, a place, and / or of people. It is considered a true sacred in he remote past.

v Legend

A true story primarily about human heroes in the recent past and may feature some religious reference.

v Folktale

A story which is regarded as fiction. It can be a non-sacred fictional story that occurs “once upon the time“ and features human and nonhuman characters.

v Folklore

A collection of fictional tales about people and / or animals. It include myth and tales.

Example: The story of Cinderella, Snow White, Snow Maiden, The Little Pear Girl, The Ugly Duckling, etc.

Direct Speech Refers to reproducing another person’s exact words or saying exactly what someone has said (sometimes called quoted speech).

We use quotation marks (“______________”) and it should be word for word.

Indirect speech Refers to reproducing the idea of another person’s words that doesn’t use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn’t have to be word for word.

Indirect speech is sometimes called reported speech.

The tense usually changes when reporting speech. This is because we are usually talking about a time in the past and obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past.

The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too

For example:

Direct speech Indirect speech


Present simple Past simple

Vita said, “I eat fried rice”. Vita said that she ate fried rice.

Past simple Past Perfect

Mother said, “I went to market yesterday”. Mother said (that) she had gone to market the day before.

Future simple Past Future

Lea said, “I am going to wash my clothes”. Lea said (that) she was going to wash her clothes.

Dave said, “I will buy an I-Pod next week”. Dave said (that) he would buy an I-Pod the week after.

Present continuous Past continuous

Gama said, “I am playing football”. Gama said he was playing football.

Past continuous Past perfect continuous

She said, “I was teaching earlier.” She said she had been teaching earlier.

v When we want to report what someone said, we do not usually repeat their exact words, we use our words. We can use reporting verbs, such as tell, say, ask followed by ‘that-clause’.

Example: My mother said that she got up at 4 o’clock.

v When reporting verbs is in the Present, Present Perfect, or Future, there is no change of tense in the words reported.

Example: She will tell you

She says (that) she doesn’t know.

She has just said


In time expressions and pronouns
Direct speech
Indirect speech
Now


Today/tonight

Yesterday

Tomorrow

Last week

Next week

Ago Then


That day/that night

The day before/the previous day

The next/following day

The previous week

The following week/the week after

Before
This/these


Here

Pronouns That/those


There

They change according to the context


v Sometimes we need to report someone’s questions. The reported question are introduced with the verb ask, inquire, wonder, want to know, etc.
Type
Form
Examples
Yes-No questions Ask + if/whether + subject + verb


Wonder etc.
“Do you speak English?”

- He wondered if I spoke English.
Wh-questions Ask + question word + subject + verb


Wonder etc.
“What are you watching?”

- She asked what I am watching.

Descriptive text is a kind of text that has functions to describe a particular thing, place, or person.

The generic structure of descriptive text :

(a) Identification / ClassificationFunction : To mention or to identificate the particular thing, place, or persons hat will be describe in the text.

(b) Description
Function : To describe or mention some characteristic of particular thing, place, or person.

The language features of descriptive text :

v Focus on specific participants

v Use of attributive and identifying processes

v Frequent use of epithets and classifier in nominal groups

v Use of simple present tense.

Example of Descriptive Text:

Identification :My Pets

We have three family pets: a dog, a cat, and a tortoise.

Descriptions :
The dog’s name is Benjamin. He is big golden Labrador. He is beautiful. He has big brown eyes and a long tail. He is very friendly dog, but he is sometimes a little stupid. Dogs are expensive to keep but they are fun to play with.

Our cat is named Martha. She is quite young, but she is not a kitten. She is very pretty. She has black and white fur and green eyes. She’s smart, too and very clean.

The tortoise’s name is Rocky. He has short, fat legs, a long neck, and a very hard shell. He is also very old and slow. He’s ugly and dirty, but I like him.

News item is to inform readers, listeners, or viewers about event of the day which are considered news worthy or important.


The structure of the text consists of three parts :

1. Newsworthy event : recounts the events in summary form.

2. Background events : elaborate what happened, to whom, and in what circumstances

3. Source : comments by participants in whitnesses to, and authorities expert on the event.


Significant Gammar Features :

· Short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline.

· Generally using simple present tense

· Use of material processer totell the event

· Focus on circumtanses


- Using action verbs, e,g ; were, run, go, kill

- Using saying verbs, e, g ; say, tell

- Use of projecting verbal processes in sources stages

A finite verb is a verb that is inflected for person and for tenses according to the ruler and categories of languages in which it occurs.

· Finite verb can form “Indenpendent Clause” which constand by their own as complete sentences

· An Independent clause is a complete sentences it contain the main subject and verb of asentences 

· In English only verb in contain mob the finite.These includes.



→ Indicate mood : expressing state of appairs in indicative mood finite verb is must used verb.

Example : Elis is going to shop


→ Imperative mood , giving a command

example : Help me please !!!

Don't do that !!!





Verb – Finite / Non Finite


Finite Verb


A finite verb (sometimes called main verbs) is a verb that has a subject, this means that it can be the main verb in a sentence. It shows tense (past / present etc) or number (singular / plural)

For example :

I lived in Germany. (I is the subject-lived describes what the subject did-lived is a finite verb).


Non-Finite Verbs


A non-finite verb has no subject, tense or number. The only non-finite verb forms are the infinite (indicated by to), the gerund or the participle.

For example :

I lived in Germany to improve my German.(To improve is in the infinite form-improve is non-finite).

Nouns in English are traditionally described as naming "persons, places, things, and ideas." Pronouns are a subcategory of nouns. Noun phrases are formed by a noun or pronoun and any modifiers, complements, or determiners including adjectives, determiners, prepositional phrases, noun clauses, and verb phrases. A noun phrase most commonly functions as a subject, object, or complement.
Examples:
- My coach is happy.
- I like the cars over there.
- The woman who lives there is my aunt.
- Frankenstein is the name of the scientist not the monster.
- I consider Meong my favorite cat.
- Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.
- To read quickly and accurately is John’s goal.
- Two of my guests have arrived.
- Mr. Jones spoke to Dr. James.
- My friend works with her father.
Nouns and noun phrases perform ten grammatical functions in the English language. The ten functions are:
1. Subject
2. Subject complement
3. Direct object
4. Object complement
5. Indirect object
6. Prepositional complement
7. Noun phrase modifier
8. Determinative
9. Appositive
10. Adverbial

From a functional point of view, the noun phrase has four major components, occurring in a fixed order:
 the determinative, that constituent which determines the reference of the noun phrase in its linguistic or situational context.
 premodification, which comprises all the modifying or describing constituents before the head, other than the determiners.
 the head, around which the other constituents cluster.
 postmodification, those which comprise all the modifying constituents placed after the head.

Structures of Noun phrase :
The structure of this noun phrase contains three sections:
1. NOUN PHRASE : pre – modifiers + noun
a). White house ; here white is a pre-modifier and house is a noun.
b). The three old Democratic legislators ; here the three old Democratic is pre-modifier and legislators is a noun.
2. NOUN PHRASE : noun + post-modifiers. (The most common post-modifier is prepositional phrases).
a). The glass on the table ; here on the table is the post-modifier.
b). The boy in the store ; here in the store is the post-modifier.
3. NOUN PHRASE : pre-modifier + noun + post-modifier.
a). The boys on top of the house are ...... here The is the pre-modifier, boys is the noun, on top of the house is the post-modifier.
b). The children in the garden ; here The is the pre-modifier, children is the noun, in the garden is the post-modifier

A passive construction occurs when you make the object of an action into the subject of a sentence. That is, whoever or whatever is performing the action is not the grammatical subject of the sentence.

Use of Passive

Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action.
Example: My bike was stolen.


In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it.
Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows:
Example: A mistake was made.
In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.).
 
Form of Passive
 
Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)
Example: A letter was written.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:
• the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
• the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
• the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)

Examples of Passive
 
 Tense - Subject - Verb - Object
Simple Present Active: Rita writes a letter.
Passive: A letter is written by Rita.
Simple Past Active: Rita wrote a letter.
Passive: A letter was written by Rita.
Present Perfect Active: Rita has written a letter.
Passive: A letter has been written by Rita.
Future I Active: Rita will write a letter.
Passive: A letter will be written by Rita.
Hilfsverben Active: Rita can write a letter.
Passive: A letter can be written by Rita.
 
Examples of Passive 

 Tense - Subject - Verb - Object
Present Progressive Active: Rita is writing a letter.
Passive: A letter is being written by Rita.
Past Progressive Active: Rita was writing a letter.
Passive: A letter was being written by Rita.
Past Perfect Active: Rita had written a letter.
Passive: A letter had been written by Rita.
Future II Active: Rita will have written a letter.
Passive: A letter will have been written by Rita.
Conditional I Active: Rita would write a letter.
Passive: A letter would be written by Rita.
Conditional II Active: Rita would have written a letter.
Passive: A letter would have been written by Rita.

Passive Sentences with Two Objects 

Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.
 
Subject - Verb - Object 1 - Object 2
Active: Rita wrote a letter to me.
Passive: A letter was written to me by Rita.
Passive: I was written a letter by Rita.
 .
As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. That’s why it is usually dropped.

Personal and Impersonal Passive
Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive.
 
Example: They build houses. – Houses are built.

Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive.

Example: he says – it is said

Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. German, Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know).

Example: They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live longer than men.

Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common.

Example: They say that women live longer than men. – Women are said to live longer than men.

The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped).
Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence.

Gratitude is expression that used to said thank you to other people.
Kind of gratitude expression are:
• Thank you very much
• Thanks
• I’m grateful to….
• I want to thank.
• I want to express my gratitude to….
• I keep forgetting to thank you for….
Respond of expressing:
• You are welcome.
• Don’t mention it.
• Not at all.
• It was nothing at all.
• No problem.
• Glad to be of help.
• (it was) my pleasure.
• I’m glad I could help.
• I’m glad I could do it.
• I’m glad I could be of help.
Compliment is expression that used to give praising to other people. Some people use compliment to better up someday or to flatter in order to increase good will.
Expressing:
 What a nice dress.
 You look great.
 You look very nice.
 I really must express my administration for you….
 Good grades.
 Excellent.
 Nice work.
Time to express compliment:
 On his/her general appearance.
 If you notice something new about the person’s appearance.
 When you visit someone’s house for the first time.
 When other people do their the best.
Congratulation is expression that used to said congratulate to someone when get a successes.
Expressing:
o Let me congratulate you.
o Congratulations on your successful business.
o My congratulations on your success.
o Congratulation on your promotion.
o Good!
o That’s great!
o Isn’t that wonderful!
o How fortunate.
o Splendid!
o Pretty good!
Responding:
o Thank you.
o Thanks, I needed that.
o That’s very kind of you to say that.
o Do you really think so?
o You’ve made my day!
o The same to you.
o I’m glad you like it.
o Thank you. It’s nice of you to say so.