When the subject is an infinitive phrase, the sentence often begins with it. Instead of saying ‘To find fault with others is easy’, we say, ‘It is easy to find fault with others’. More examples are given below.

• It is easy to learn English. (More natural than ‘To learn English is easy’.)
• It was not easy to understand his motive.
• It may be advisable to consult a specialist.
• It could be dangerous to drive so fast.
• It was pleasant to sit on the beach.

• To err is human.
• To withdraw now will be sheer folly.

• Will it be any good my talking to him about it?
• It is no use arguing with him.
• It won’t be much good complaining to the officer about it.

• Will it be any good for me to talk to him about it?

• It does not matter whether he comes or not. (= Whether he comes or not does not matter.)
• It is doubtful whether he can pay the dues. (= Whether he can pay the dues is doubtful.)
• It cannot be denied that the doctors did their best to save his life. (= That the doctors did their best to save his life cannot be denied.)

Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be going to." Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. These different meanings might seem too abstract at first, but with time and practice, the differences will become clear. Both "will" and "be going to" refer to a specific time in the future.

FORM Will

FORM Be Going To

USE 1 "Will" to Express a Voluntary Action

USE 2 "Will" to Express a Promise

USE 3 "Be going to" to Express a Plan

USE 4 "Will" or "Be Going to" to Express a Prediction

IMPORTANT

No Future in Time Clauses

ADVERB PLACEMENT

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Narrative text is a kind of text that has function to entertain, create, stimulate emotions, motivate, guide, and teach the reader which contains about story (fiction/non fiction/tales/folktales/ fables/myths/epic) and in its plot consists of climax of the story (complication) then followed by the resolution.

The generic structure of narrative text :

v Orientation

Function : It sets the scene and introduces the participants(it answers the question = who, when, what, where.)

v Evaluation

Function : A stepping back to evaluate the plight (the information about the narrator’s point of view) ; it is optional.

v Complication

Function : A crisis or a problem arises. It usually involves the main characters.

v Resolution

Function : A solution to the problem (for better or for worse). Main characters find ways to solve the problem.

The kinds of narrative text :

v Myth

A tradisional story which may describe the origins of the world, a place, and / or of people. It is considered a true sacred in he remote past.

v Legend

A true story primarily about human heroes in the recent past and may feature some religious reference.

v Folktale

A story which is regarded as fiction. It can be a non-sacred fictional story that occurs “once upon the time“ and features human and nonhuman characters.

v Folklore

A collection of fictional tales about people and / or animals. It include myth and tales.

Example: The story of Cinderella, Snow White, Snow Maiden, The Little Pear Girl, The Ugly Duckling, etc.

Direct Speech Refers to reproducing another person’s exact words or saying exactly what someone has said (sometimes called quoted speech).

We use quotation marks (“______________”) and it should be word for word.

Indirect speech Refers to reproducing the idea of another person’s words that doesn’t use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn’t have to be word for word.

Indirect speech is sometimes called reported speech.

The tense usually changes when reporting speech. This is because we are usually talking about a time in the past and obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past.

The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too

For example:

Direct speech Indirect speech


Present simple Past simple

Vita said, “I eat fried rice”. Vita said that she ate fried rice.

Past simple Past Perfect

Mother said, “I went to market yesterday”. Mother said (that) she had gone to market the day before.

Future simple Past Future

Lea said, “I am going to wash my clothes”. Lea said (that) she was going to wash her clothes.

Dave said, “I will buy an I-Pod next week”. Dave said (that) he would buy an I-Pod the week after.

Present continuous Past continuous

Gama said, “I am playing football”. Gama said he was playing football.

Past continuous Past perfect continuous

She said, “I was teaching earlier.” She said she had been teaching earlier.

v When we want to report what someone said, we do not usually repeat their exact words, we use our words. We can use reporting verbs, such as tell, say, ask followed by ‘that-clause’.

Example: My mother said that she got up at 4 o’clock.

v When reporting verbs is in the Present, Present Perfect, or Future, there is no change of tense in the words reported.

Example: She will tell you

She says (that) she doesn’t know.

She has just said


In time expressions and pronouns
Direct speech
Indirect speech
Now


Today/tonight

Yesterday

Tomorrow

Last week

Next week

Ago Then


That day/that night

The day before/the previous day

The next/following day

The previous week

The following week/the week after

Before
This/these


Here

Pronouns That/those


There

They change according to the context


v Sometimes we need to report someone’s questions. The reported question are introduced with the verb ask, inquire, wonder, want to know, etc.
Type
Form
Examples
Yes-No questions Ask + if/whether + subject + verb


Wonder etc.
“Do you speak English?”

- He wondered if I spoke English.
Wh-questions Ask + question word + subject + verb


Wonder etc.
“What are you watching?”

- She asked what I am watching.

Descriptive text is a kind of text that has functions to describe a particular thing, place, or person.

The generic structure of descriptive text :

(a) Identification / ClassificationFunction : To mention or to identificate the particular thing, place, or persons hat will be describe in the text.

(b) Description
Function : To describe or mention some characteristic of particular thing, place, or person.

The language features of descriptive text :

v Focus on specific participants

v Use of attributive and identifying processes

v Frequent use of epithets and classifier in nominal groups

v Use of simple present tense.

Example of Descriptive Text:

Identification :My Pets

We have three family pets: a dog, a cat, and a tortoise.

Descriptions :
The dog’s name is Benjamin. He is big golden Labrador. He is beautiful. He has big brown eyes and a long tail. He is very friendly dog, but he is sometimes a little stupid. Dogs are expensive to keep but they are fun to play with.

Our cat is named Martha. She is quite young, but she is not a kitten. She is very pretty. She has black and white fur and green eyes. She’s smart, too and very clean.

The tortoise’s name is Rocky. He has short, fat legs, a long neck, and a very hard shell. He is also very old and slow. He’s ugly and dirty, but I like him.

News item is to inform readers, listeners, or viewers about event of the day which are considered news worthy or important.


The structure of the text consists of three parts :

1. Newsworthy event : recounts the events in summary form.

2. Background events : elaborate what happened, to whom, and in what circumstances

3. Source : comments by participants in whitnesses to, and authorities expert on the event.


Significant Gammar Features :

· Short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline.

· Generally using simple present tense

· Use of material processer totell the event

· Focus on circumtanses


- Using action verbs, e,g ; were, run, go, kill

- Using saying verbs, e, g ; say, tell

- Use of projecting verbal processes in sources stages